The following video will introduce you to the concept of the stimulus. Watch this primer video and then complete the associated consolidation exercise. Alternatively, read the transcript below.
In our earlier lessons, we learned that a stimulus that follows a behaviour is known as a consequence, and that when a consequence strengthens a behaviour, we say that reinforcement occurs.
There are many different types of reinforcers. In this lesson, we?ll look at some of the main classes of reinforcers.
Unconditioned reinforcers
Unconditioned reinforcers are natural reinforcers. They function as reinforcers the first time they are presented. No prior experience is required. They are also known an primary reinforcers or natural reinforcers.
Food is an unconditioned reinforcer. Warmth is an unconditioned reinforcer. Sex is an unconditioned reinforcer. Water and oxygen are unconditioned reinforcers. All of these reinforcers relate to our biological functioning as humans. We are designed to seek out these forms of reinforcement.
In summary, an unconditioned reinforcer is a stimulus that can increase future occurrences of behaviour without prior pairing with any other form of reinforcement.
Conditioned reinforcers
Conditioned reinforcers (also known as secondary reinforcers) are those that have been paired with unconditioned reinforcers. This means that a stimulus that was once neutral (that is, it did not have any affect on behaviour that preceded it) becomes reinforcing through association with an unconditioned reinforcer (or another conditioned reinforcer).
These stimuli are not typically important for our survival, but become reinforcing during our lives as a result of pairing with other preferred items and activities.
Many social stimuli, such as praise, smiles or a sense of accomplishment, become reinforcers early on during our development. Babies and toddlers come to associate these stimuli with primary reinforcers such as food and warmth. Other stimuli can then become conditioned reinforcers by pairing them with social reinforcement. For example, somebody learning to play golf might start to enjoy it after it becomes paired with social reinforcement.
In your own life, you may find that a theme tune to one of your favourite shows ? that you didn?t particular notice ? starts to become reinforcing over time because it has been paired with that show.
Generalised Conditioned Reinforcers
A stimulus that is very reinforcing in some circumstances, loses its value as a reinforcer in other circumstances. Take the example of food. If you have just had a three course meal, the prospect of having more food is unlikely to be appealing. In that circumstance, food loses its value as a reinforcer.
Likewise, a favourite song might be a conditioned reinforcer. But if you?ve been listening to it on repeat, for an hour, it would probably lose its value as a reinforcer.
However, there is a particular class of conditioned reinforcers that do not generally lose their value. These are known as generalised conditioned reinforcer.
A generalised conditioned reinforcer is a conditioned reinforcer that is paired with a wide range of other reinforcers.? For example, money is a generalized conditioned reinforcer. Money can be exchanged for a large variety of goods and items.
Within a school environment, tokens are an example of generalized conditioned reinforcers which can be exchanged for a variety of back-up reinforcers such as preferred activities.
People can also become generalised conditioned reinforcers if they are associated with a wide variety of different reinforcers.? For example, if a child?s uncle is generally associated with playing games, sweets, going to the movies, jokes, praise and smiles, then the child may find just being in the presence of that person reinforcing ? even if they?re not engaging in the activities that lead to them becoming a reinforcer.
It is because things money and tokens are paired with so many different reinforcers (and can be used to access them) that they rarely lose their value as reinforcers.
Alternative categories
Reinforcers can be classified by their attributes. For example, we might talk about edible reinforcers when referring to highly preferred foods.??
We might also talk about sensory reinforcers. A hug may be a sensory reinforcer because it has a pleasurable effect on a learner. Thing like a favourite picture or spinning in a circle might also be regarded as sensory circles (provided the person enjoys them). Sensory reinforcers bring pleasure to the individual?s senses.
Other categories include tangible, activity and social reinforcer.
A tangible reinforcer is a tangible item that a person values, while an activity reinforcer is some activity that person enjoys.?? A social reinforcer can be any enjoyable interaction with another person that can be used to increase behaviour.
Putting it Together
It is important to understand that these categories of reinforcers overlap.
For example, we might look at a child who, when asked to do his homework, shouts at his father. His father typically reacts by telling him he can listen to music on his phone for another half hour, but must do his homework later.
In this scenario, we can see multiple reinforcers at work for the child?s shouting.
For this child, homework is aversive. So we can see that he access negative reinforcement by delaying the onset of that aversive activity.? His father?s demand is also aversive, and he escapes that by shouting.
He also access music for a greater amount of time. This is an example of positive reinforcement.? However, music is a sensory reinforcer and the child?s phone is a tangible reinforcer.
What should be clear from this example, is that reinforcers belong to multiple categories. We can describe them in terms of their attributes as well as referred to them as positive or negative, conditioned or unconditioned.
In later modules and lessons, you will see how we can use this knowledge to help people to decrease behaviours that challenge and increase more contextually appropriate skills.